Comment Confucianism and Citizenship (Score -1) 192
Consensus in Aristocratic and Confucian Social Roles:
Ethical relations between the citizen and the society
Harmony throughout social and political strata is a main concern in many traditions and ethical systems throughout the world. Its capture on the intellectual and layperson can be understood in its immediate relevance. How ought one behave within society, and through what scope? What benefits would compliance entail, and what reciprocal action could one receive? Questions such as these illustrate underlying thoughts and ideas people have towards relationships between the individual and the society. In western ideas, it is between citizen and the populous, and to some extent, heaven itself. In eastern traditions, it is the interaction between the individual and the cosmos. Strikingly similar, this paper intends to discuss parallels between eastern and western thoughts on such topics, and ultimately strengthen a developing ethical system based on concessions between the two theories. In developing such a theory, one may hope that, in a practical sense, it may find expedient application in the modern world.
Aristotle believed in an ethical system of virtue, that proper action is initiated only due to the agent being ethical. In addition, Aristotle believed in actions being judged as fair or unfair based on his concept of Justice, in which one's action toward another is judged just/unjust by means of an Aristocratic proportion of merit. The connection, Aristotle posits, between the two concepts is that just actions are a result of the practice of perfect virtue. Aristotle states that a virtuous man and a keeper of the law is just. Thus Aristotle places an appropriate scope of Justice and Virtue in that there is a context of law in considering just and unjust actions. It is important to point out that by law, one can include legislature as well as natural/social laws. Therefore, the context of law may be synonymous with a context of society. Concluding from a previous essay, justice follows from an inclination to be virtuous and corresponding duties, within an appropriate social backdrop, the social Context. Note that there is no threat to dissolving into a relativistic system, as the system is objectively supported by a priori virtues as well as corresponding duties.
A student of Confucianism should immediately draw parallels between this Aristocratic Context and the teachings of Confucius and later disciples. Confucius advocates the idea of jen, virtue of humanness, to be the standard of all ethical behavior. In fact, Confucius believes jen to be the "perfect virtue," from which other virtues take shape. Through this and yi, which one may interpret as ethical principles of action, one may accomplish moral behavior, a ritualistic mode of interaction with others known as li. Accomplishing li, via jen and yi, an individual effects the social strata, ultimately dismissing the entropy of the cosmos. Structured around the people and within these strata, Confucius details the construction of a Jen-Government, lead by kingly figures, promoting and honoring jen, yi and li within individuals and their actions. The effective mark of the individual on his social environment is detailed within both the Aristocratic theory and Confucian tradition, and through an examination of the parallel between the Aristocratic Context and Confucian Jen-Government, a harmonious fusion can be determined, and applied nicely to the modern world.
In his teachings, Confucius detailed the concept of jen as perfect virtue, or the virtue of humanness. Far from detailing a idealist stance, Confucius believed that in the attempt to become like that which is superior, one initiates a cycle of jen based virtues, a similar note to Aristotle's habituation of virtue. Also similar to western virtue ethics is Confucius's identification of the inherent goodness of the mean path. The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean details the good of the middle way, stating,
"Perfect is the virtue which is according to the mean. They have long been rare among the people who could practice it"(Dawson 65).
Spawned from jen and following the path of the mean, are virtues such as purpose, poise, self-sufficiency, rectitude, benevolence and composure. It is a practical concept concerning humanity, with the goal of harmonious interactions molding its development. One who is with jen acts with compassion and with virtues of humanity. Such a compassion for society and constituents may be seen as a magnification of scope of Buddhist and other eastern traditions' idea of compassion for all. It is seen as a practical application to loving all, and a requited love from the social Context.
In addition to jen, Confucius's disciple Mencius describes yi, righteousness or principle of a moral action. Described in various studies as the categorical imperative, it reflects the western idea of deontological principles. However, in Confucian teaching, it shares a natural relationship with virtue, thus being an Aquinas-like combination of aretic and deontological theories, similar to their combination in the Aristocratic Context: one is judged by virtue, his actions by principle (Though obviously, Confucianism predates the writings of Aquinas). It is reminiscent to the quote, "Principles without traits are impotent. Traits without principles are blind." Though not originally expounded by Confucius, Mencius deemed it necessary to couple jen and yi together, for examining one's ideal heart and conduct.
Flowing from the coupling of jen and yi are morally correct actions known as li. Though popularly described as ritualistic action, the use of the word ritual denotes a formal and elegant gathering, departing from what Confucian disciples intended it to be. Hsun Tzu claimed that li should be the standard in examining social conduct, the end action and its effect throughout the Context. Thus, it is apparent that formal ritual activity was not envisioned, but rather causal conduct in everyday situations. The emphasis, however, is that li is preceded and determined by jen and yi to produce morally correct and sincere action. This, therefore, is the moral currency, backed by yi and acknowledged by jen, that propagates throughout society, and up through the cosmos.
There is a consensus between the western virtue ethical system and Confucian tradition in the development and self-cultivation of the individual, and his role as a citizen of a greater populous. Because of the complex and hierarchical nature of the Context, attributable to both traditions, a citizen plays various roles within society. Confucian thought mandates that in order to have jen, one must fulfill the social and a priori expectations of an ideal, multifaceted citizen. This is the Eastern concept of rectification of names, and details again an aspiration to become the ideal. Note that this is similar to the western concept of Platonic forms, again in a magnified scope of individuals, families, societies and the cosmos. Thus, as Confucianism is concerned, one affects the rectification of several names with the action of the individual as an individual, propagating throughout the levels of the social Context.
In further examining the individual, Confucian ethics encounters a schism between the inherent, sans-Context, nature of the human being, a property important in understanding if one were to create a modern application of Confucian thought. As Mencius believes, the individual possesses jen inherently, and thus is inherently good. Only through the interactions between a bad Context does this jen lose importance, but never disappearing, in the individual, as he more and more turns to profit and extremes as a form of propriety of "bad" li. However, Hsun Tzu proposed the opposite, that human nature is inherently flawed, though has the potential to ascribe to jen, a thought shared by Hobbes, and his infamous Hobbesian state of human nature. Goodness, therefore, is acquired.
An implicit corollary to Hsun Tzu's belief is that the Confucian concepts of yi, and li are social products, which arise due to interactions between the individual and the Context. This is concluded mainly because of the idea that Goodness, a broad concept covering humanness of jen, and principles of yi resulting in moral actions, li, are acquired. Therefore, while their potential may be objective, action, their related principles, and humanness comes from an interaction of people. Without this interaction, it is reasonable to conclude that no action, if action is indeed possible, can be attributed, as just or unjust, concluding that there are no social principles that apply to an individual removed from his context. Hsun Tzu clarifies that li and yi are rules formulated by sage-kings, which should not detract from their importance, as it is the sage who truly follows jen.
It must also be pointed out that, to a degree, jen itself is a social product, a virtue only through interaction, for without objects to be humane to, jen, or humanness loses its value. This does not spoil the analogy between jen and western objective virtue, as jen was qualified as a perfect virtue. The virtues themselves, known as de, are truly objective, and protect the Context from becoming a relativistic system. Thus, Hsun Tzu's belief on inherent human nature is adopted for use in the modern ethical system currently being developed. It is believed that Confucius would also agree with the social production of yi, li, and to some extent jen. For in detailing some social structure, Confucius advocates the idea that humanity is not defined by any given trait or social treatment. He believed that in becoming a jen-oriented human is a cultural achievement. This concept is in parallel with the later work of John Rawls, in A Liberal Theory of Justice, where he states that justice, and judgment on good/just actions, are truly social products, and underlying theme used to promote a special ethical system, which requires the obligatory social setting in order to fully understand what is good or not, a theme echoed throughout the ideas of Confucian disciples.
Thus an appropriate description of a moral individual has been presented. Truly, the moral individual is the key in establishing a harmonious context, for it is through its constituents that the Context comes into being, and it is through their morality and aspiration for the ideal that ultimately the cosmos become united. Therefore, it is important to understand the relationship the individual has with the political stratification, and his channels to effective actions through the Context. The responsibility of the Context, according to Confucian thought, therefore consists of reciprocal action towards the individual, and other substrata. In this reciprocal action, the Context must make clear what exactly the social ideals are, and educate the public in how to attain those. Thus as a moral instructor and example, the Context serves as the collection of individuals, as well as kings and princes, as defined by Confucius himself. In addition, as named, the Context must be also be held applicable to Confucian rectification of names. That is, a Context must aspire to be the ideal context. This concept is modified, however, to allow the Context, serving as a frame of reference for the people, to have a frame of reference itself. This frame is the people. Seeing their collection as an entity, the people as a collection, through actions motivated by jen and yi, must strive to become the ideal context. However several concessions must be made if the role of the Context and reciprocal relation of the individual are to be adapted in determining Hsun Tzu's interpretation of human nature and if one wanted to apply the theory in modern times.
In accepting Hsun Tzu's determination of human nature, one must accordingly accept the corollary that deems a deliberate stratification of society necessary. Hsun Tzu believed in a clear demarcation of classes to allow and encourage the inferior class to emulate the superior, a view many take at first to promote a social discrimination. However, the stratification Hsun Tzu promotes is truly one closely tied to Confucius's rectification of names. As Hsun Tzu elaborates on this idea, he introduces the idea of social classes, and the obligatory aspiration to become ideal. Note that this demarcation is not along economic, racial, or religious lines, but rather a division based upon jen virtue. In fact, only by this distinction of people, according to Hsun Tzu, can society breed unity. For it is through these distinctions that one may realize his faults, improving upon himself and thus improving society. In an ideal context then, its constituents need not be perfect, but a clear demarcation of the varying level of jen must be expounded, thus allowing its constituents a perpetual mode of aspiring to be perfect. Through this perfection, the constituents reach unity, providing a coherent social context. Thus, by Hsun Tzu, a more immediate channel to promoting harmony throughout the cosmos by the individual is one's interaction between and within social groups. Therefore Hsun Tzu's society is one of intimate and local relationships between families and friends, which initiate the society/cosmos relationship. In locally aspiring to become an ideal social group, constituents promote jen throughout the universe.
Thus, in adapting this more local view on society, one may further apply Confucian ideals to modern times, eliminating the need for absolute extrema such as kings and emperors, but instead having local extrema, a western idea of social moral heroes. With these social heroes, locally placed within smaller, and intimate social groups, one may aspire to become like these heroes. With a practical flare, one no longer need to look towards faceless kings and emperors, (in modern times this is not only impractical, but impossible, save for an obligatory consideration of the president, who may or may not exhibit "kingly sway") but to truly jen-rich and personal heroes. Thus in the terrain of the cosmos, heroes represent small hills of the entire mountain range of society. Surprisingly, with Hsun Tzu's adaptation of inherent evil in human nature, one may find a closer, more involved social Context filled with attainable heroes and close-knit social groups.
Thus a more personal view of the Context is now presented. It is a collection of small social groups, with heroes as jen-exemplars and workhorses. The constituents purify the context by purifying themselves from an inherent evil. Therefore the Context maintains its dynamic and controlled aspect as discussed in a previous essay. And also the context, through social interactions, implicit and explicit rules, affects its constituents. All of this is controlled by an acquired, through the teachings of the Context and social heroes need to promote jen throughout the cosmos.
Therefore the reciprocal nature between the Social stratification as dictated in Confucianism is maintained in this newer formulation of a Social Context, its individuals and their relationships. It not only serves and a system of checks and balances, but also of a symbiotic rewards system. In order to affect the cosmos, the individual promotes jen within himself. The collection of all individuals, swayed by a disposition likened to that of the social heroes therefore detail what the ideals are, and what actions are in compliance with jen and de. If either are off the path to jen, a quick rectification comes in the form of a recognition by social heroes, which in turn affects the individual and his rectification to be like those heroes, which then propagates again throughout the universe, promoting a new equilibrium of harmony until stress is again applied to it.
Works Cited
Chai, Ch'u, and W. Chai. The Scared Books of Confucius. New York: Bantam Books, 1965
Dawson, Miles Menander. The Ethics of Confucius. New York: The Knickerbocker Press, 1915
de Bary, W Theodore. The Unfolding of New-Confucianism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975
de Bary, W Theodore and Tu Weiming. Confucianism and Human Rights. New York: Columbia University Press, c1998.
Ethical relations between the citizen and the society
Harmony throughout social and political strata is a main concern in many traditions and ethical systems throughout the world. Its capture on the intellectual and layperson can be understood in its immediate relevance. How ought one behave within society, and through what scope? What benefits would compliance entail, and what reciprocal action could one receive? Questions such as these illustrate underlying thoughts and ideas people have towards relationships between the individual and the society. In western ideas, it is between citizen and the populous, and to some extent, heaven itself. In eastern traditions, it is the interaction between the individual and the cosmos. Strikingly similar, this paper intends to discuss parallels between eastern and western thoughts on such topics, and ultimately strengthen a developing ethical system based on concessions between the two theories. In developing such a theory, one may hope that, in a practical sense, it may find expedient application in the modern world.
Aristotle believed in an ethical system of virtue, that proper action is initiated only due to the agent being ethical. In addition, Aristotle believed in actions being judged as fair or unfair based on his concept of Justice, in which one's action toward another is judged just/unjust by means of an Aristocratic proportion of merit. The connection, Aristotle posits, between the two concepts is that just actions are a result of the practice of perfect virtue. Aristotle states that a virtuous man and a keeper of the law is just. Thus Aristotle places an appropriate scope of Justice and Virtue in that there is a context of law in considering just and unjust actions. It is important to point out that by law, one can include legislature as well as natural/social laws. Therefore, the context of law may be synonymous with a context of society. Concluding from a previous essay, justice follows from an inclination to be virtuous and corresponding duties, within an appropriate social backdrop, the social Context. Note that there is no threat to dissolving into a relativistic system, as the system is objectively supported by a priori virtues as well as corresponding duties.
A student of Confucianism should immediately draw parallels between this Aristocratic Context and the teachings of Confucius and later disciples. Confucius advocates the idea of jen, virtue of humanness, to be the standard of all ethical behavior. In fact, Confucius believes jen to be the "perfect virtue," from which other virtues take shape. Through this and yi, which one may interpret as ethical principles of action, one may accomplish moral behavior, a ritualistic mode of interaction with others known as li. Accomplishing li, via jen and yi, an individual effects the social strata, ultimately dismissing the entropy of the cosmos. Structured around the people and within these strata, Confucius details the construction of a Jen-Government, lead by kingly figures, promoting and honoring jen, yi and li within individuals and their actions. The effective mark of the individual on his social environment is detailed within both the Aristocratic theory and Confucian tradition, and through an examination of the parallel between the Aristocratic Context and Confucian Jen-Government, a harmonious fusion can be determined, and applied nicely to the modern world.
In his teachings, Confucius detailed the concept of jen as perfect virtue, or the virtue of humanness. Far from detailing a idealist stance, Confucius believed that in the attempt to become like that which is superior, one initiates a cycle of jen based virtues, a similar note to Aristotle's habituation of virtue. Also similar to western virtue ethics is Confucius's identification of the inherent goodness of the mean path. The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean details the good of the middle way, stating,
"Perfect is the virtue which is according to the mean. They have long been rare among the people who could practice it"(Dawson 65).
Spawned from jen and following the path of the mean, are virtues such as purpose, poise, self-sufficiency, rectitude, benevolence and composure. It is a practical concept concerning humanity, with the goal of harmonious interactions molding its development. One who is with jen acts with compassion and with virtues of humanity. Such a compassion for society and constituents may be seen as a magnification of scope of Buddhist and other eastern traditions' idea of compassion for all. It is seen as a practical application to loving all, and a requited love from the social Context.
In addition to jen, Confucius's disciple Mencius describes yi, righteousness or principle of a moral action. Described in various studies as the categorical imperative, it reflects the western idea of deontological principles. However, in Confucian teaching, it shares a natural relationship with virtue, thus being an Aquinas-like combination of aretic and deontological theories, similar to their combination in the Aristocratic Context: one is judged by virtue, his actions by principle (Though obviously, Confucianism predates the writings of Aquinas). It is reminiscent to the quote, "Principles without traits are impotent. Traits without principles are blind." Though not originally expounded by Confucius, Mencius deemed it necessary to couple jen and yi together, for examining one's ideal heart and conduct.
Flowing from the coupling of jen and yi are morally correct actions known as li. Though popularly described as ritualistic action, the use of the word ritual denotes a formal and elegant gathering, departing from what Confucian disciples intended it to be. Hsun Tzu claimed that li should be the standard in examining social conduct, the end action and its effect throughout the Context. Thus, it is apparent that formal ritual activity was not envisioned, but rather causal conduct in everyday situations. The emphasis, however, is that li is preceded and determined by jen and yi to produce morally correct and sincere action. This, therefore, is the moral currency, backed by yi and acknowledged by jen, that propagates throughout society, and up through the cosmos.
There is a consensus between the western virtue ethical system and Confucian tradition in the development and self-cultivation of the individual, and his role as a citizen of a greater populous. Because of the complex and hierarchical nature of the Context, attributable to both traditions, a citizen plays various roles within society. Confucian thought mandates that in order to have jen, one must fulfill the social and a priori expectations of an ideal, multifaceted citizen. This is the Eastern concept of rectification of names, and details again an aspiration to become the ideal. Note that this is similar to the western concept of Platonic forms, again in a magnified scope of individuals, families, societies and the cosmos. Thus, as Confucianism is concerned, one affects the rectification of several names with the action of the individual as an individual, propagating throughout the levels of the social Context.
In further examining the individual, Confucian ethics encounters a schism between the inherent, sans-Context, nature of the human being, a property important in understanding if one were to create a modern application of Confucian thought. As Mencius believes, the individual possesses jen inherently, and thus is inherently good. Only through the interactions between a bad Context does this jen lose importance, but never disappearing, in the individual, as he more and more turns to profit and extremes as a form of propriety of "bad" li. However, Hsun Tzu proposed the opposite, that human nature is inherently flawed, though has the potential to ascribe to jen, a thought shared by Hobbes, and his infamous Hobbesian state of human nature. Goodness, therefore, is acquired.
An implicit corollary to Hsun Tzu's belief is that the Confucian concepts of yi, and li are social products, which arise due to interactions between the individual and the Context. This is concluded mainly because of the idea that Goodness, a broad concept covering humanness of jen, and principles of yi resulting in moral actions, li, are acquired. Therefore, while their potential may be objective, action, their related principles, and humanness comes from an interaction of people. Without this interaction, it is reasonable to conclude that no action, if action is indeed possible, can be attributed, as just or unjust, concluding that there are no social principles that apply to an individual removed from his context. Hsun Tzu clarifies that li and yi are rules formulated by sage-kings, which should not detract from their importance, as it is the sage who truly follows jen.
It must also be pointed out that, to a degree, jen itself is a social product, a virtue only through interaction, for without objects to be humane to, jen, or humanness loses its value. This does not spoil the analogy between jen and western objective virtue, as jen was qualified as a perfect virtue. The virtues themselves, known as de, are truly objective, and protect the Context from becoming a relativistic system. Thus, Hsun Tzu's belief on inherent human nature is adopted for use in the modern ethical system currently being developed. It is believed that Confucius would also agree with the social production of yi, li, and to some extent jen. For in detailing some social structure, Confucius advocates the idea that humanity is not defined by any given trait or social treatment. He believed that in becoming a jen-oriented human is a cultural achievement. This concept is in parallel with the later work of John Rawls, in A Liberal Theory of Justice, where he states that justice, and judgment on good/just actions, are truly social products, and underlying theme used to promote a special ethical system, which requires the obligatory social setting in order to fully understand what is good or not, a theme echoed throughout the ideas of Confucian disciples.
Thus an appropriate description of a moral individual has been presented. Truly, the moral individual is the key in establishing a harmonious context, for it is through its constituents that the Context comes into being, and it is through their morality and aspiration for the ideal that ultimately the cosmos become united. Therefore, it is important to understand the relationship the individual has with the political stratification, and his channels to effective actions through the Context. The responsibility of the Context, according to Confucian thought, therefore consists of reciprocal action towards the individual, and other substrata. In this reciprocal action, the Context must make clear what exactly the social ideals are, and educate the public in how to attain those. Thus as a moral instructor and example, the Context serves as the collection of individuals, as well as kings and princes, as defined by Confucius himself. In addition, as named, the Context must be also be held applicable to Confucian rectification of names. That is, a Context must aspire to be the ideal context. This concept is modified, however, to allow the Context, serving as a frame of reference for the people, to have a frame of reference itself. This frame is the people. Seeing their collection as an entity, the people as a collection, through actions motivated by jen and yi, must strive to become the ideal context. However several concessions must be made if the role of the Context and reciprocal relation of the individual are to be adapted in determining Hsun Tzu's interpretation of human nature and if one wanted to apply the theory in modern times.
In accepting Hsun Tzu's determination of human nature, one must accordingly accept the corollary that deems a deliberate stratification of society necessary. Hsun Tzu believed in a clear demarcation of classes to allow and encourage the inferior class to emulate the superior, a view many take at first to promote a social discrimination. However, the stratification Hsun Tzu promotes is truly one closely tied to Confucius's rectification of names. As Hsun Tzu elaborates on this idea, he introduces the idea of social classes, and the obligatory aspiration to become ideal. Note that this demarcation is not along economic, racial, or religious lines, but rather a division based upon jen virtue. In fact, only by this distinction of people, according to Hsun Tzu, can society breed unity. For it is through these distinctions that one may realize his faults, improving upon himself and thus improving society. In an ideal context then, its constituents need not be perfect, but a clear demarcation of the varying level of jen must be expounded, thus allowing its constituents a perpetual mode of aspiring to be perfect. Through this perfection, the constituents reach unity, providing a coherent social context. Thus, by Hsun Tzu, a more immediate channel to promoting harmony throughout the cosmos by the individual is one's interaction between and within social groups. Therefore Hsun Tzu's society is one of intimate and local relationships between families and friends, which initiate the society/cosmos relationship. In locally aspiring to become an ideal social group, constituents promote jen throughout the universe.
Thus, in adapting this more local view on society, one may further apply Confucian ideals to modern times, eliminating the need for absolute extrema such as kings and emperors, but instead having local extrema, a western idea of social moral heroes. With these social heroes, locally placed within smaller, and intimate social groups, one may aspire to become like these heroes. With a practical flare, one no longer need to look towards faceless kings and emperors, (in modern times this is not only impractical, but impossible, save for an obligatory consideration of the president, who may or may not exhibit "kingly sway") but to truly jen-rich and personal heroes. Thus in the terrain of the cosmos, heroes represent small hills of the entire mountain range of society. Surprisingly, with Hsun Tzu's adaptation of inherent evil in human nature, one may find a closer, more involved social Context filled with attainable heroes and close-knit social groups.
Thus a more personal view of the Context is now presented. It is a collection of small social groups, with heroes as jen-exemplars and workhorses. The constituents purify the context by purifying themselves from an inherent evil. Therefore the Context maintains its dynamic and controlled aspect as discussed in a previous essay. And also the context, through social interactions, implicit and explicit rules, affects its constituents. All of this is controlled by an acquired, through the teachings of the Context and social heroes need to promote jen throughout the cosmos.
Therefore the reciprocal nature between the Social stratification as dictated in Confucianism is maintained in this newer formulation of a Social Context, its individuals and their relationships. It not only serves and a system of checks and balances, but also of a symbiotic rewards system. In order to affect the cosmos, the individual promotes jen within himself. The collection of all individuals, swayed by a disposition likened to that of the social heroes therefore detail what the ideals are, and what actions are in compliance with jen and de. If either are off the path to jen, a quick rectification comes in the form of a recognition by social heroes, which in turn affects the individual and his rectification to be like those heroes, which then propagates again throughout the universe, promoting a new equilibrium of harmony until stress is again applied to it.
Works Cited
Chai, Ch'u, and W. Chai. The Scared Books of Confucius. New York: Bantam Books, 1965
Dawson, Miles Menander. The Ethics of Confucius. New York: The Knickerbocker Press, 1915
de Bary, W Theodore. The Unfolding of New-Confucianism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975
de Bary, W Theodore and Tu Weiming. Confucianism and Human Rights. New York: Columbia University Press, c1998.
