If you think of a 5 on an AP exam as an A (which it tries to model) in the college class, and a 3 as a C, it's clear that most people taking AP classes aren't doing well on the exam. It's not AP's problem that 40% of the students who even take the exam don't even get a C.

Only when customers want to buy a fixed amount of the product irrespective of its price. When customers are price sensitive, increasing the price to offset the tax will cause some customers to decide not to buy the product, which reduces revenues and profits since the company isn't selling as much. This affects profits, so the shareholders pay for it, and they may eventually change their cost structure, causing the company's suppliers to pay for it. Who pays the tax is called the tax incidence (wikipedia), and it's easy to compute from the supply and demand curves.

And the constitution still provides for due process of law, where the only reason I can end up on a target list to be eligible for punishment of a crime is for a court of law to rule that I belong there, not merely for an intelligence agency or even the President to decide on their own.

Ah! So if I take a vacation to Pakistan, where travel is not restricted, and then someone claims I'm one of "such people" who you claim "always carry a gun", then I can be shot, without due process? Drones regularly kill people who are driving in cars, not actively engaged in battle (even if they are at war), or providing an imminent threat. If I go outside the country and someone accuses me of murder, that doesn't give the FBI the right to track me down, find me unarmed, and kill me without a trial.

Once the armed robber puts the gun down, they certainly do have a right to due process. They aren't fair game to be shot by police two weeks later when they're walking to the grocery store unarmed, even if they plan to rob again.

No - the question is whether or not the claim that they are serving with foreign enemies of this Republic needs to be established at trial, with due process of law.

You mean: "allegedly enlisted in the service of foreign organizations that are trying to murder American soldiers and civilians."

In other words, part of what determines the value is a component of random noise. In other words, the series is random. Not uniform, not brownian motion, etc., but a random process nonetheless.

Nonetheless national debt did shrink as a percent of GDP under his tenure. Oh, and when we state something as a matter of fact, please cite data sources. Historical Debt (U.S. Treasury). Debt as percent of GDP.